July 1636 – September 1638
The Pequot War
A Turning Point in Colonial and Native American History
The Pequot War, fought from 1636 to 1638 in New England, pitted the Pequot nation against an alliance of English colonists from Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, and Saybrook, alongside their Narragansett and Mohegan allies. This conflict resulted in the decisive defeat of the Pequot, with approximately 700 killed or captured. Many prisoners were sold into slavery in Bermuda and the West Indies, while survivors were dispersed and absorbed into other tribes.
The war’s outcome dramatically reshaped southern New England. The Pequot were effectively eliminated as a distinct political entity, with colonial authorities declaring them extinct. This brutal conflict underscored the tensions and violence inherent in early colonial expansion, highlighting the devastating consequences for Native American populations facing encroachment and military force.
Table of Contents
New England Before the War
Native American Presence in Southern New England
Long before European ships appeared on the horizon, the coastal regions of what is now Connecticut, Rhode Island, and eastern Massachusetts were home to diverse indigenous communities. The Pequot, whose name means “destroyers” or “ravagers” in the Algonquian language, had established themselves as one of the most powerful tribes in the region by the early 17th century.
The Pequot controlled the Connecticut River Valley, a strategic location that gave them dominance over valuable trade routes. Their territory extended from the Connecticut River eastward toward the area that is now Rhode Island. With an estimated population of 8,000 people living in several villages, the Pequot had developed a complex social structure and a mixed economy based on agriculture, hunting, fishing, and trade.
Other significant tribal groups in the region included the Narragansett, Mohegan, Niantic, and various smaller Algonquian-speaking communities. These groups maintained complex relationships with one another, characterized by both cooperation and competition, alliances and conflicts.
Early European Contact and Settlement
European contact with southern New England began in the early 1600s, primarily through fishing expeditions and trading voyages. Dutch traders established a presence in the Connecticut River Valley by 1614, and English explorers began mapping the coastline around the same time.
The first permanent English settlements in New England came with the Plymouth Colony (1620) and the Massachusetts Bay Colony (1630). As these colonies grew, settlers began to push westward and southward, establishing new towns and trading posts.
By 1633, English colonists had established settlements in Windsor and Wethersfield along the Connecticut River, bringing them into direct contact with Pequot territory.
This expansion occurred against the backdrop of intense competition between European powers for control of North American resources. The English colonies, the Dutch trading posts, and the French settlements to the north all sought to establish profitable trade networks with Native American tribes, particularly for beaver pelts and other valuable furs.
Early Trade Relations and Tensions
Initially, relations between European traders and Native American tribes focused on commerce. The Pequot eagerly engaged in the fur trade, exchanging beaver pelts for European metal tools, weapons, cloth, and other manufactured goods. This trade transformed traditional Native American economies and power dynamics among the tribes.
The Pequot established themselves as middlemen in the regional fur trade, controlling access to interior tribes and their goods. This position brought them wealth and influence but also placed them in competition with other powerful tribes, particularly the Narragansett to the east, who also sought to dominate regional trade networks.
Tensions began to rise as European settlement expanded and competition for land and resources intensified. Epidemics of European diseases, against which Native Americans had no immunity, devastated indigenous populations, causing demographic collapse in many communities.
Between 1616 and 1619, a major epidemic—possibly smallpox or leptospirosis—killed an estimated 90% of the Native population in coastal New England, dramatically weakening tribal societies just as European colonization accelerated.
By the 1630s, these factors created a volatile situation. The remaining Native American groups struggled to adapt to rapid changes while maintaining their independence and cultural identity. European colonists sought to expand their settlements and secure their positions in the valuable fur trade. Against this backdrop of cultural collision, demographic catastrophe, and economic competition, the specific events that would trigger the Pequot War began to unfold.
Causes of the Pequot War
Economic Competition for the Fur Trade
One of the primary causes of the Pequot War was fierce competition for control of the lucrative fur trade. By the 1630s, the fur trade had become the economic backbone of colonial New England and a major source of wealth for native tribes who participated in it.
The Pequot had established themselves as powerful middlemen in this trade, controlling access to the Connecticut River Valley and its resources. This position gave them significant advantages in dealing with both European traders and other Native American groups. The Pequot traded primarily with the Dutch, who had established a trading post at what is now Hartford, Connecticut.
As English colonists moved into the Connecticut River Valley, they directly challenged this arrangement. The English settlers wanted to trade directly with interior tribes, bypassing Pequot middlemen. This economic competition created significant tensions between the English and the Pequot, while also straining relations between the Dutch and English traders in the region.
Land Disputes and Colonial Expansion
As the English population in New England grew, pressure for new agricultural land increased. The fertile Connecticut River Valley became an attractive destination for colonial expansion. By the mid-1630s, several English settlements had been established in the valley, including Windsor, Hartford, and Wethersfield.
This expansion brought colonists into direct territorial conflict with the Pequot. While European and Native American concepts of land ownership differed significantly, the practical reality was that colonial settlements reduced the land available for Pequot hunting, fishing, and cultivation. Colonial livestock often damaged Native American cornfields, creating further tensions.
The establishment of these new settlements also disrupted traditional Pequot control over the region. As more colonists arrived, the balance of power began to shift, threatening Pequot autonomy and their dominant position among regional tribes.
Cultural Misunderstandings and Religious Differences
Profound cultural differences between the English colonists and the Pequot contributed significantly to the conflict. The Puritans who dominated the Massachusetts Bay Colony and its offshoots viewed Native Americans with a mixture of curiosity, condescension, and suspicion. Many Puritans considered Native Americans to be “savage” and in need of Christian conversion.
Religious differences played a particular role in shaping colonial attitudes. The Puritans saw themselves as establishing a “city upon a hill” – a godly community in the wilderness. They often interpreted conflicts with Native Americans in religious terms, viewing them as struggles between Christian civilization and “heathen” darkness.
For their part, the Pequot had their own religious and cultural traditions that shaped their worldview and their responses to colonial encroachment. These different cultural frameworks made cross-cultural communication difficult and contributed to misunderstandings that escalated tensions.
Political Alliances and Tribal Rivalries
The complex web of political relationships among Native American tribes also contributed to the outbreak of the Pequot War. The Pequot had long-standing rivalries with neighboring tribes, particularly the Narragansett and the Mohegan.
The Mohegan, led by Uncas, had once been part of the Pequot tribal confederation but had broken away to form their own group. Uncas strategically allied the Mohegan with the English colonies, seeing this as a way to challenge Pequot dominance and advance Mohegan interests.
Similarly, the Narragansett, traditional rivals of the Pequot, saw alliance with the English as a means to weaken their enemies. These tribal rivalries created opportunities for colonial powers to form alliances that would prove crucial during the war.
The Massachusetts Bay Colony and other English settlements actively cultivated these alliances, recognizing that they could not confront the Pequot alone. By exploiting existing tribal divisions, the colonists were able to assemble a coalition that ultimately proved decisive in the conflict.
The Stone and Oldham Incidents
Against this backdrop of growing tensions, two specific incidents served as the immediate triggers for the Pequot War. In 1634, a trader named John Stone and his crew were killed, allegedly by members of the Pequot tribe. Stone had a reputation for troublemaking and had been previously expelled from Massachusetts Bay Colony for bad behavior. Nevertheless, colonial authorities demanded that the Pequot turn over Stone’s killers for punishment.
The Pequot denied responsibility for the murder but agreed to pay wergild (compensation) to settle the matter. However, this agreement did not fully resolve the tensions, and colonial authorities continued to view the Pequot with suspicion.
Two years later, in July 1636, a second incident occurred when John Oldham, another trader, was killed while trading near Block Island. Though Oldham was killed by members of the Narragansett-allied Eastern Niantic tribe, not by the Pequot, colonial authorities partially blamed the Pequot for the incident and used it as a pretext for military action.
These incidents, though relatively minor in themselves, served as catalysts for the outbreak of full-scale war in a context where tensions were already high due to economic competition, land disputes, cultural misunderstandings, and political rivalries.
Key Events and Battles of the War
The Block Island Expedition (August 1636)
In response to the killing of John Oldham, Massachusetts Bay Colony organized a punitive expedition to Block Island, led by John Endecott.
In late August 1636, the colonial force, consisting of about 90 men, landed on Block Island with orders to kill all the Native American men they encountered and to capture women and children.
Finding most of the island’s inhabitants had fled, the expedition burned villages and destroyed corn fields before proceeding to Pequot territory on the mainland. There, Endecott demanded that the Pequot turn over those responsible for the deaths of Stone and Oldham, pay a substantial tribute, and surrender children as hostages.
When the Pequot sachems (leaders) refused these demands, Endecott’s forces burned several villages and destroyed crops before returning to Boston. Rather than intimidating the Pequot into submission, this expedition enraged them and pushed the region closer to full-scale war.
Pequot Raids and Colonial Response (Fall 1636 – Spring 1637)
Following Endecott’s expedition, the Pequot launched a series of retaliatory raids against English settlements in Connecticut. They attacked traders on the Connecticut River and besieged the fort at Saybrook, effectively cutting off the more distant colonial settlements from coastal support.
In April 1637, Pequot warriors attacked the settlement at Wethersfield, killing nine colonists and capturing two young women. This attack, striking at the heart of the English settlements in Connecticut, created panic among the colonists and led to calls for decisive military action.
The Connecticut River colonies, now feeling directly threatened, organized a military response. The colonial leadership decided that the time had come for a major offensive operation against the Pequot, rather than merely defensive measures.
Formation of the Colonial-Native American Alliance
Recognizing that they lacked the manpower to confront the Pequot alone, the English colonies worked to strengthen their alliances with other Native American tribes. The Mohegan, led by Uncas, joined the colonial forces, as did the Narragansett, traditional enemies of the Pequot.
The Narragansett initially hesitated to join the alliance, wary of English intentions. Roger Williams, who had established good relations with the tribe, played a crucial role in persuading them to join the colonial side. The Narragansett sachem Miantonomo eventually agreed to an alliance, though with some reservations.
These alliances proved crucial to the colonial war effort, providing not only additional warriors but also essential knowledge of the terrain and Pequot fighting tactics. Without Native American allies, the English would have struggled to locate Pequot villages and navigate the unfamiliar wilderness.
The Mystic Massacre (May 26, 1637)
On May 26, 1637, the pivotal event of the Pequot War occurred when a force of English colonists and their Native American allies attacked the fortified Pequot village near the Mystic River.
The attacking force, led by Captains John Mason and John Underhill, consisted of about 90 colonists and hundreds of Mohegan and Narragansett warriors.
Rather than directly assault the village’s palisade, Mason decided to set fire to the settlement. As the flames spread rapidly through the closely-packed wigwams, chaos ensued. Those who tried to flee the burning village were shot by English soldiers positioned outside the palisade.
The result was devastating. Within an hour, between 400 and 700 Pequot, mostly women, children, and the elderly, were killed. Only a handful managed to escape. The English reported just two casualties.
The Narragansett and Mohegan allies of the English were reportedly horrified by the brutality of the attack, with Narragansett warriors allegedly declaring,
“It is too furious, and slays too many men.”
Nevertheless, they participated in hunting down Pequot survivors who escaped the initial massacre.
The Mystic Massacre broke the power of the Pequot tribe and stands as one of the most controversial events in early American history.
Some historians have characterized it as an act of genocide, while others view it as a brutal but strategic military action typical of 17th-century warfare.
Final Battles and Pequot Defeat (Summer 1637)
Following the Mystic Massacre, the remaining Pequot, led by their sachem Sassacus, fled westward toward what is now New York. English forces, along with their Mohegan and Narragansett allies, pursued them relentlessly.
In July 1637, colonial forces caught up with a large group of fleeing Pequot in a swamp near present-day Fairfield, Connecticut. After a brief siege, most of the surrounded Pequot surrendered, though Sassacus and a small group of warriors managed to escape.
Sassacus sought refuge among the Mohawk, hoping they would protect him against the English. Instead, the Mohawk killed him and sent his head back to the English colonies as a gesture of goodwill, possibly hoping to secure favorable trade relations with the colonists.
With their military and political leadership destroyed, the remaining Pequot were scattered and unable to continue organized resistance. The war effectively ended by August 1637, though small-scale conflicts continued for some months as colonists and their allies hunted down the last Pequot holdouts.
The Treaty of Hartford
Terms of the Treaty
The formal end to the Pequot War came with the Treaty of Hartford, signed on September 21, 1638. This agreement, negotiated between the colonies and their Native American allies, determined the fate of the defeated Pequot people and their lands.
The treaty’s terms were harsh and designed to eliminate the Pequot as a distinct tribal entity:
- The Pequot name was officially abolished, and survivors were forbidden to call themselves Pequot.
- Pequot territory was divided among the colonial governments and their Native American allies.
- Surviving Pequot were distributed as captives among the Mohegan, Narragansett, and other allied tribes, or sold into slavery in the West Indies.
- Those Pequot who remained in New England were prohibited from returning to their former lands or reforming as an independent tribe.
The treaty represented an attempt to completely erase the Pequot people from the New England landscape, both physically and culturally. It stands as one of the most severe peace settlements imposed on a Native American tribe in early colonial history.
Distribution of Pequot Captives
Following their defeat, the surviving Pequot faced a grim fate. Many adult male captives were executed outright. Women and children were distributed as servants or slaves among the colonists and their Native American allies.
A significant number of Pequot captives, estimated at between 180 and 300, were shipped to Bermuda and the West Indies to be sold as slaves. This represents one of the earliest instances of Native American slavery in English colonial history and set a precedent that would be repeated in later conflicts.
Those Pequot who were given to Native American allies often occupied a subordinate status within those tribes, though over time many were integrated into their new communities. The Mohegan, in particular, absorbed many former Pequot, strengthening their numbers while maintaining cultural connections to Pequot traditions.
Redistribution of Pequot Lands
The former Pequot territory, encompassing much of eastern Connecticut, was divided between the colonies and their Native American allies. The Connecticut Colony received the bulk of the land, significantly expanding its territorial holdings and securing valuable agricultural areas for colonial settlement.
The Mohegan, under Uncas, received portions of the former Pequot territory, enhancing their status as the dominant Native American power in the region. The Narragansett also received territorial concessions, though less than they had hoped for, creating seeds of discontent that would later contribute to conflicts between the Narragansett and the English colonies.
This redistribution of land accelerated English settlement in Connecticut and permanently altered the balance of power in southern New England. With the removal of Pequot control, colonial expansion into the Connecticut River Valley proceeded rapidly, and new towns were established throughout the region.
Treaty Summary
Agreement between the English in Connecticut and the Indian Sachems
This agreement is made between the English living in the Connecticut Colony, and Miantonomo, the Chief Sachem of the Narragansetts, on behalf of himself and the other chief sachems under him, and Uncas, the Chief Sachem of the Mohegans, on behalf of himself and the sachems under him,
As follows, at Hartford, September 21, 1638:
First, peace is declared between the Narragansett and the Mohegan and all former wrongs between them are buried and never to be brought up again.
Second, it is agreed that in the future, any wrongs committed between the Narragansett and the Mohegan shall not be revenged but will be brought to the English to decide justice. The Narragansett and Mohegan must follow the English leaders’ decision, and if they don’t it will be lawful for the English to make them follow it.
Third, it is agreed that peace and friendship is made between the Narragansett and the Mohegan as long as they act peacefully and don’t give cause for offense, and that neither tribe is sheltering any enemies of the English or anyone that murdered or killed any English man or woman. If they do, they will bring the chief sachems of the Pequot, our late enemies, to the English or take off their heads.
Fourth, it is reported that there are 200 Pequot men, women, and children living. The English give to the Narragansetts 80 plus the 11 they already have, and to Uncas his number, and that hereafter, the Pequots shall no more be called Pequots but Narragansetts and Mohegans and shall pay wampum and corn every year to the English, and they shall not live in their country which is now English by conquest.
Neither shall the Narragansetts or Mohegans have any of the Pequot country without permission from the English. And it is expected that any English captives they hold will be returned to the English.
This agreement is to be kept by the parties named and if any break the agreement, the other two may join together and make war on them unless satisfaction is made.
Aftermath and Legacy
Effects on Colonial-Native American Relations
The Pequot War profoundly shaped subsequent relations between English colonists and Native American tribes throughout New England. The brutal effectiveness of colonial military action against the Pequot created a lasting impression on other tribes, deterring potential resistance to English expansion for many years.
The conflict established a pattern in which colonial authorities exploited divisions among Native American groups, forming alliances with certain tribes against others. This “divide and conquer” approach would be repeated throughout the colonial period and beyond, contributing to the gradual dispossession of indigenous peoples across North America.
The war also hardened colonial attitudes toward Native Americans. Many colonists came to view indigenous peoples primarily as obstacles to settlement rather than as potential trading partners or allies, except when expedient for colonial interests. This shift in perspective facilitated more aggressive colonial policies in subsequent decades.
Military Developments and Tactics
The Pequot War marked a significant development in colonial military capabilities. Prior to the conflict, English colonists had limited experience with warfare in the North American context. The war provided valuable lessons about wilderness fighting, the importance of Native American allies, and the effectiveness of coordinated actions between different colonial settlements.
The tactics used during the Mystic Massacre—especially the deliberate targeting of a village population rather than facing warriors in open battle—reflected a shift toward total warfare. This approach would be employed again during King Philip’s War (1675-1678) and in later conflicts with Native American tribes.
Colonial militias gained organizational experience and developed more effective command structures as a result of the war. These developments would later prove valuable during King Philip’s War and subsequent conflicts with both Native American tribes and European rivals.
Political Consequences for New England Colonies
The successful conclusion of the Pequot War enhanced the security and stability of the English colonies in southern New England. With the Pequot threat eliminated, settlements in Connecticut could expand more rapidly and with less concern about Native American resistance.
The conflict also fostered greater cooperation between the separate English colonies, providing an early example of inter-colonial coordination that would be formalized in 1643 with the creation of the New England Confederation. This alliance, formed primarily for defense against Native American tribes and European rivals, represented an important step toward colonial self-governance and eventual independence.
The power vacuum created by the Pequot defeat allowed the Connecticut Colony to establish itself more firmly as a distinct political entity. Connecticut’s acquisition of former Pequot lands strengthened its position relative to Massachusetts Bay and other colonial neighbors.
Conclusion
The Pequot War, though relatively brief, stands as a pivotal moment in early American history. In less than two years, this conflict transformed the political landscape of New England, accelerated English colonial expansion, and nearly destroyed one of the region’s most powerful Native American tribes.
The war’s causes reflected the complex mix of economic competition, cultural misunderstanding, and political rivalry that characterized early colonial-indigenous relations. Its execution demonstrated the brutal efficiency of colonial military action, especially when combined with strategic alliances with other Native American groups.
Its aftermath established patterns of colonial expansion and Native American dispossession that would be repeated across North America in subsequent centuries.
For the Pequot people, the war represented a catastrophic disaster that nearly erased them as a distinct cultural and political entity. Yet the survival and eventual resurgence of Pequot communities, despite colonial efforts to eliminate their very identity, testifies to extraordinary cultural resilience and persistence.
Resources for Further Learning
Books
- Cave, Alfred A. “The Pequot War.” University of Massachusetts Press, 1996.
- Hauptman, Laurence M. and James D. Wherry, eds. “The Pequots in Southern New England: The Fall and Rise of an American Indian Nation.” University of Oklahoma Press, 1990.
- Karr, Ronald Dale. “‘Why Should You Be So Furious?’: The Violence of the Pequot War.” Journal of American History, vol. 85, no. 3, 1998, pp. 876-909.
- Mason, John. “A Brief History of the Pequot War.” Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1966 [originally published 1736].
- Salisbury, Neal. “Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans, and the Making of New England, 1500-1643.” Oxford University Press, 1982.
- Underhill, John. “Newes from America; Or, A New and Experimentall Discoverie of New England.” London: J.D. for Peter Cole, 1638.
- Vaughan, Alden T. “New England Frontier: Puritans and Indians, 1620-1675.” University of Oklahoma Press, 1995.